PSYCHOLOGY OF ONSCREEN TYPE: INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING TYPEFACE PERSONALITY, APPROPRIATENESS, AND IMPACT ON DOCUMENT PERCEPTION [pdf]

Dawn Shaikh, A., 2007. Psychology Of Onscreen Type: Investigations Regarding Typeface Personality, Appropriateness, And Impact On Document Perception. MoA. Wichita State University.

Interacting with text onscreen is inherently different than interacting with text on paper and electronic text is often perceived as inferior to printed text. This inferiority is primarily due to screen resolution when compared to print resolution. Screen resolution is the “fineness of an output device” usually measured in dots per inch (dpi) ("Truetype glossary", 2000). While monitors present text at 72‐120 dpi, text printed on a laser printer can achieve resolutions of 300‐1200 dpi.
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• The use of standardised type may be more efficient effective for screen as there are specific fonts created to be used on screen based on the format of pixels rather than print resolutions e.g Verdana. Serifs don't work as well on screen.

Additionally, most typefaces are designed for use on printed materials; Verdana and Georgia, two faces specifically designed for display on screen, are exceptions ("Channel verdana", 1997). Designer Matthew Carter carefully constructed these typefaces based on pixels rather than the pen or brush. ClearTypeTM, the latest type rendering technology from Microsoft, utilizes subpixel addressing to enhance the readability of onscreen text.
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Typography is an art whose definition, as with most art forms, varies by source. 
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Typography creates both visual and historical sense in documents. Type carries both visual/design information and verbal/text‐based information. The goals of typography, according to Bringhurst (2002) are to (1) interest the reader in the text, (2) “reveal the tenor and meaning of the text,” (3) delineate the document’s structure and flow, (4) provide cohesion between text and other visual elements, and (5) “induce a state of energetic repose, which is the ideal condition for reading” (p. 24).
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The main problem with creating a taxonomy of type or choosing “one best” scheme is that type has not evolved in a tidy and logical progression (S. Morrison, 1986b). Many modern typefaces are created based on a historical model. The question then arises – does the new, knockoff typeface belong to the same category as the original? Typefaces of today are often experimental and design‐like in nature. Display typefaces were not a part of the historical beginnings of type, and therefore, are not included in many classification schemes.
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Boser reported there were more than 40,000 typefaces available in 2003 as compared to a few hundred in the 1950s. Linotype (www.linotype.com) offers over 6000 typefaces and MyFonts (www.myfonts.com) currently has over 51,000 fonts for sale. On the average computer running Microsoft Windows Office XP, there are over 170 standard fonts installed (Boser, 2003; K. Larson, personal communication, October 31, 2006). Due to advances in technology, anyone can create and push out a typeface that may completely lack historical significance.
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• Linotype now has over 16,000 typefaces.
• Microsoft word has over 200 fonts on average now. https://www.pcworld.com/article/3263818/how-to-use-fonts-in-microsoft-word-excel-powerpoint-office.html

Furthermore, Wroblewski (2002) points out that “all text does not have to be read to be understood; type can also communicate visually” (p. 201).
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• For bespoke type - the visuals it creates can be just as important as the word it is.

Upon encountering typefaces, the reader reacts to the text based on either learned arbitrary associations, figurative associations, or abstract associations (Doyle & Bottomley, 2006). The actual sequence of events is that the visual stimuli (such as type) are perceived and then cognitively processed using memory and associations. Learned arbitrary associations refer to the influence of historical precedence on affective response to typography. The typeface Fraktur has many associations with Nazi Germany, and Helvetica is commonly associated with the U.S. government since it is used by the IRS on tax forms.
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By looking at the typeface, movie‐goers can often determine whether the movie will be funny, sad, or scary (Wroblewski, 2002).
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“A logo or text image is not only recognized on a conscious level, but is available for future reference when we recall the experience. Typography influences the subconscious so strongly that conditioning the observer with type is not only possible but definitely happens – whether we want it or not” (Rogener et al., 1995, p. 16)
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Rogener, S., Pool, A., Packhauser, U., & Ginger, E. M. (1995). Branding with type (S. Tripier, Trans. English Translation ed.). Mountain View, CA: Adobe Press.

SEMANTICS
Semantic memory “is our organized knowledge about the world” (Matlin, 2002, p. 236)
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Matlin, M. W. (2002). Cognition (5th ed.). New York: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

Random facts and associations are part of semantic memory which includes information that is encyclopedic in nature, lexical or language related, and conceptual. At the foundation of semantic memory are concepts which allow people to make inferences and group new information through the process of association. Concepts exist in two forms—natural concept (referring to natural objects like grass and bananas) and artifacts (objects constructed by humans like typefaces). Dillon (2004) found that when using electronic documents, participants relied on both spatial and semantic processes. Specifically, semantic attributes (which could include typefaces) worked with spatial processes such as layout and navigation to create a dynamic representation of the digital information. The semantic attributes were found to be affected by experience with less experienced users being forced to rely more on spatial attributes.
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Dillon, A. (2004). Designing usable electronic text (2nd ed.). New York: CRC Press.

• With a lack of understanding, bespoke type can be hard to read to an average consumer. The use of composition and colour with a standardised type may be the more effective choice.

Work done by Childers and Jass (2002) further supported the idea that semantic memory and typefaces are linked. The researchers created advertisements in typefaces that were either supportive of the product or “that activated semantic associations that were different” (p. 97) than the product. They found that when the typefaces that activated different semantic associations negatively affected global recall of the ad’s contents.
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Childers, T. L., & Jass, J. (2002). All dressed up with something to say: Effects of typeface
semantic associations on brand perception and consumer memory. Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 12(2), 93‐106.

• However, standardised type often has semantic associations established, e.g Franktur with Nazi Germany, therefore creating an original typeface that is unique to the project can create new semantic associations and/or avoid previous ones.

The theory of semantic memory could be used to explain the affective nature of typography. Typefaces are an example of artifacts in the semantic memory since they are constructed by man and given arbitrary meaning. Based on the premise of the network models, when a typeface is encountered, the network is activated. Previous experience with the typeface is also activated, and if the new experience is consistent with previous experiences then the perception of the typeface is reinforced. If the new experience differs from previous experiences with the typeface, then the existing perception must be modified. With repeated exposures to typefaces, the reactions that are largely subconscious become faster and intensified.

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QUOTES
Bringhurst, R., 2012. The Elements Of Typographic Style. Seattle: Hartley & Marks.
Typography is “the craft of endowing human language with a durable visual form, and thus with an independent existence” (p. 11)

Spiekermann, E., & Ginger, E. M. (2003). Stop stealing sheep & find out how type works (2nd
ed.). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press.
“We know from experience that what we have to say is much easier for others to understand if we put it in the right voice; type is that voice, the visible language linking writer and reader” (p.7)

Warde, B. (1956). The crystal goblet: Sixteen essays on typography. Cleveland, OH: The World Publishing Company.

The infamous, Beatrice Warde (1956) advocates the view that typography is a science; the main point of typography is to convey “thought, ideas, images, from one mind to other minds” (p. 13).

Smart, K. L., Rice, J. C., & Wood, L. E. (2000). Meeting the needs of users: Toward a semiotics of the web. Proceedings of IEEE Professional Communication Society International
  298
Professional Communication Conference and ACM Special Interest Group on
Documentation Conference on Technology and Teamwork, 593‐605.Psychologists define typography as the “art of using typeface, layout, and color to convey the meaning of text” (Smart et al., 2000)

McCarthy, M. S., & Mothersbaugh, D. L. (2002). Effects of typographic factors in advertising‐ based persuasion: A general model and initial empirical tests. Psychology & Marketing, 19, 663‐691.

“the form, spacing, and layout of words and sentences in the text of a written or displayed communication message” (McCarthy & Mothersbaugh, 2002, p. 664).

Doyle, J. R., & Bottomley, P. A. (2006). Dressed for the occasion: Font‐product congruity in
the perception of logotype. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(2), 112‐123.
 either learned arbitrary associations, figurative associations, or abstract associations

Wroblewski, L. (2002). Site‐seeing: A visual approach to web usability ‐ chapter 5.